Second Intermediate Period: Egypt’s 13th & 14th Dynasties

Why Did the 12th Dynasty Collapse? Key Theories Behind the Decline of Egypt's Golden Age

The Twelfth Dynasty was undoubtedly one of Egypt's golden ages, and King Amenemhat III was one of the greatest pharaohs not only in the history of that dynasty but in the history of Egypt as a whole.

His son Amenemhat IV shared the rule of Egypt with him in his later years, followed by Queen Sobekneferu, who was the daughter of Amenemhat III. Suddenly, the star of this family began to fade and weakness took over, and the king passed from their hands to another dynasty, the thirteenth.

History stands still—or more accurately, historians stand perplexed, searching for the reasons for this change and the widespread weakness that afflicted the country, without finding a clear cause.

Magic and Political Crisis in the 13th Dynasty: Figurines, Spells, and National Fear

Some researchers believe that the cause of this decline was the emergence of enemies of Egypt in Syria, Palestine, and the south, basing their opinion on the existence of a large number of dolls and vessels inscribed with magic spells to crush their owners.

The practice of writing the names of enemies on red pottery vessels, small pieces of clay, or clay figurines dates back to the late Old Kingdom, but it was widely used during the Thirteenth Dynasty. Red pottery vessels covered with magical spells to crush Pharaoh's enemies were found in Thebes.

Orange shading indicates the territory possibly under control of the 14th Dynasty, according to Ryholt

Who Were the Enemies of the 13th Dynasty? A Look at Figurines from Byblos to Jerusalem

If we study these spells and dolls, we find that they belong to princes from Nubia or Asia who took a hostile stance against Egypt. Some of those around the king wanted to convince him that it was possible to crush them through magic. This is clear evidence of the country's weakness and its helplessness in the face of this danger that threatened its very existence.

Among the countries mentioned on these figurines are Byblos, Ashkelon, and Jaffa, and the name Jerusalem Au-(shamem) appeared for the first time.

Was Ancient Egypt Fighting Itself? The Rise of Internal Rebellions in the Middle Kingdom

There is another phenomenon, which is the presence of dolls representing some Egyptians, meaning that Egypt was suffering greatly, and that Egyptians in Egypt itself and the princes of Syria and Sudan who owed allegiance to it began to revolt against it. When Pharaoh became unable to suppress the revolution, he resorted to magic in the hope that it would save him from his predicament.

Theories Behind the Middle Kingdom Collapse: Internal Rivalries or Foreign Invasions?

Here we return once again to ask about the reason for this collapse and analyze it, but we find only hypotheses that we can discuss, without finding anything in the Egyptian texts to confirm them completely. The first of these hypotheses is that the kings of the Twelfth Dynasty came to power when Egypt was ruled by strong rulers, so they fought some of them and made peace or allied with others, but many of them retained their prestige and wealth in their provinces, so they seized the opportunity presented by the weakness that befell the country after Amenemhat III and regained their former power.

This was especially true since, from the beginning of the Twelfth Dynasty, internal disputes within the family had divided its unity, and conspiracies within the royal house were one of the reasons for its collapse. In addition to these two assumptions, there is an important fact that may have been the strongest reason, which is that since around 2000 BC, some Indo-European peoples began to come from the east and north of their original homeland in Central Asia to settle in Mesopotamia and Syria.

How Indo-European Migrations Affected Egypt: Unrest in the Levant and Beyond

These migrations caused unrest in those provinces, and some of these tribes fought the original inhabitants of the country and drove them out, while other tribes settled with the inhabitants and lived in peace; for these migrations were not organized invasions, but rather these peoples came successively in search of a livelihood.

Within two centuries, some of them became princes who ruled the country. Faced with all these dangers, fragmented Egypt had no choice but to surrender.

Who Were the Pharaohs of the 13th Dynasty? Timeline, Names, and Achievements

The reign of the kings of this dynasty cannot have exceeded fifty-five years, because the reign of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties did not exceed a century and a half, and the period separating the Twelfth Dynasty from the Eighteenth Dynasty did not exceed two centuries. while we see that the Egyptian historian Manetho mentioned that it exceeded fifteen centuries.

Did Manetho Mislead Us? Rethinking the Timeline of Egypt’s Second Intermediate Period

Manetho faced the same difficulty that we face now. He had before him long lists of different families in various parts of Egypt, each of which claimed to be the king and ruler of the north and south. Manetho considered that each of these houses ruled the whole country, followed by the other houses, while in reality they ruled at the same time when they were fragmented and not united.

Was Egypt a Fragmented State? Mapping Regional Powers During the Second Intermediate Period

There was a powerful house in Thebes, another in Qift, a third in Asyut, a fourth in the eastern Delta, and a fifth in the western Delta. The influence of some of these houses increased at times and decreased at others, but the most important of all was what we call the Thirteenth Dynasty, the ruling house that most likely ruled in Memphis in the north and left many traces in Thebes and in many places throughout the country, some of whose rulers extended their influence south to Nubia and north to Lebanon.

The first king known to us is Sekhemre Khutawy, also known as Amenemhat Sobekhotep. Some historians attribute to him the marriage to Queen Sobekneferu, but we lack evidence for this.

He was succeeded by another king named Sekhemre, whose name appears in the Turin Papyrus like his predecessor's. Traces of him have been found in various parts of Egypt, and the beginning of instability in Nubia can be traced back to his reign.

Lost Pharaohs of the 13th Dynasty: Statues, Temples, and Forgotten Kings

We have dozens of names of kings whose statues and paintings have been found in various regions of Egypt, both in the north and south. Among these kings is one named Sobekhotep, of whom more than one statue has been found in Tanis. Other names that appear among these kings are Sekhemkare and Khasekhemre-Neferhotep I.

Who Was King Nehesy? Early Hyksos Links and the Cult of Set in Egypt

As for King Nehesy, his titles and description as “beloved of Set, lord of Avaris” lead us to believe that he was connected to the Hyksos, who had begun to settle in the eastern Delta since the middle of this dynasty.

Reviving Osiris: King Khendjer’s Temple Restoration and Religious Vision

One of the most prominent names in this dynasty is King Khendjer, whose pyramid was found in Saqqara al-Qibliya. We also know that he ordered his minister Ankhu to repair the temple of Senusret I in Abydos. We know from one of the paintings that he gathered his courtiers and ordered them to study ancient books in order to rebuild the temple of Osiris in Abydos as it was when it was first built in ancient times.

Pyramids of the Forgotten: Where Were the 13th Dynasty Pharaohs Buried?

The kings of the thirteenth dynasty, and perhaps the fourteenth as well, were buried in the Memphis necropolis. We have already mentioned the pyramid of King Khendjer in Saqqara al-Qibliya, which was uncovered by the Antiquities Authority in 1929. At the same time, two other pyramids were discovered nearby, one of which was unfinished, and those responsible for the discovery were unable to identify the names of their owners.

In 1894, the tomb of a king named Hor Awibre was discovered in the northern part of the pyramid of Amenemhat III in Dahshur, inside the wall surrounding the pyramid. In this tomb, valuable items were found, including his famous wooden statue, which depicts him standing naked with the Ka sign above his head. It is now in the Egyptian Museum.

What Do We Know About the 14th Dynasty of Egypt? Origins, Rulers, and Uncertainties

Manetho tells us that after the end of the Thirteenth Dynasty, they were succeeded by the kings of the Fourteenth Dynasty, whose seat of power was in the city of Xois in the western Delta. Manetho states that there were seventy-six kings of this dynasty who ruled for one hundred and eighty-four years. The Turin Papyrus mentions about twenty-one of them, but the Karnak list does not refer to them.

Regardless of the value of Manetho's writings and the number of kings mentioned in the Turin Papyrus, it is likely that this dynasty began at the same time as the Thirteenth Dynasty, but lasted longer because it was far from the Hyksos headquarters in the east.

Are the Tombs of the 14th Dynasty Still Hidden? Archaeological Hopes in the Delta Fields

As for the remains of the kings of this dynasty—if we still have any hope of finding them—they are still hidden under the fields of the region, undiscovered to this day.

In any case, the Fourteenth Dynasty ruled in Xois at one time, while the eastern Delta was under the control of the Hyksos, whose vanguard had begun to settle there.

Thebes and a large part of Upper Egypt remained under the influence of the ruling houses there.

Timeline and Key Facts of the Second Intermediate Period Dynasties

Dynasty & Period	Pharaoh	Estimated Reign Dates	Key Events / Achievements	Foreign Relations	Archaeological Evidence
13th Dynasty (c. 1803–1649 BC)	Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep	Early 13th Dynasty	Possibly married Queen Sobekneferu; established authority in Memphis & Thebes	Maintained some Nubian control	Traces found in various sites across Egypt
	Sekhemre (successor)	Early 13th Dynasty	Signs of instability in Nubia begin	Increasing unrest in southern territories	Inscriptions in multiple regions
	Sobekhotep (multiple kings)	Throughout dynasty	Built statues and maintained northern and southern influence	Limited foreign campaigns	Statues found in Tanis
	Sekhemkare	Mid-dynasty	Local governance and temple activity	Minor contact with Levant	Scarabs & inscriptions
	Khasekhemre-Neferhotep I	Mid-dynasty	Strong presence in religious rebuilding	Maintained trade with Nubia & Levant	Inscriptions in Abydos and beyond
	Nehesy	Mid-late dynasty	Linked to Hyksos; worshipped Set, lord of Avaris	Strong ties to Eastern Delta Hyksos settlers	Monuments showing Set worship
	Khendjer	Late 13th Dynasty	Built pyramid at Saqqara; restored Senusret I’s temple in Abydos; studied ancient texts to rebuild Osiris temple	Diplomatic approach	Pyramid at Saqqara; temple remains in Abydos
	Hor Awibre	Late 13th Dynasty	Minor ruler; burial found within Amenemhat III’s pyramid complex	Little foreign contact	Famous wooden statue (Egyptian Museum)
14th Dynasty (c. 1778–1594 BC)	Multiple kings (mostly unknown)	Overlaps with 13th Dynasty	Ruling from Xois in Western Delta; survived longer due to distance from Hyksos	Limited Hyksos interference initially	No major confirmed tombs; possible remains under Delta fields

Frequently Asked Questions about the 13th and 14th Dynasties of Egypt

1. Why did the 12th Dynasty of Egypt collapse?

Historians suggest multiple causes, including internal royal disputes, weakening central authority, and foreign pressures from Nubia, Syria, and Palestine. Some believe the arrival of Indo-European migrants in the region destabilized Egypt’s allies and trade routes.

2. How did ancient Egyptians use magic during the 13th Dynasty?

Magical figurines and red pottery inscribed with curses were used against foreign and internal enemies, reflecting the kingdom’s inability to confront threats through military power alone.

3. Who was King Nehesy and why is he important?

King Nehesy was a ruler associated with the 13th Dynasty and is believed to have links with the Hyksos. His devotion to the god Set indicates early cultural ties between native Egyptians and Hyksos settlers in the Eastern Delta.

4. Where were the 13th Dynasty pharaohs buried?

Most were buried in the Memphis necropolis, with notable tombs and pyramids found in Saqqara and Dahshur, such as the pyramid of King Khendjer and the tomb of Hor Awibre.

5. What is known about the 14th Dynasty?

The 14th Dynasty ruled from Xois in the Western Delta and overlapped with the 13th Dynasty. Many rulers are unknown, and their tombs remain undiscovered, possibly buried under modern agricultural fields.

References

Shaw, Ian. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford University Press, 2000.
Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Wiley-Blackwell, 1994.
Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton University Press, 1992.
Tyldesley, Joyce. Hatchepsut: The Female Pharaoh. Penguin, 1996.
British Museum. “Second Intermediate Period (c. 1800–1550 BC).”