The 12th Dynasty of Ancient Egypt: From Rise to Fall

Historical Background & the Rise of Amenemhat I

Amenemhat I stabilized the situation by establishing boundaries between the provincial rulers and their neighbors. They accepted his imposition of taxes and his requirement that the government supervise internal affairs in the provinces. Those who opposed him were removed from office and replaced with people he trusted. There is no doubt that the task was difficult and that the country needed someone with his competence and courage, so he achieved what he wanted in restoring security.

Relief, lintel, Amenemhat I.Source

Founding of Itjtawy and Amenemhat’s Expansion Policies

Organizing internal affairs was the most important task he faced when he took power, and whether the choice of a location for the capital near Memphis was his idea or that of King Mentuhotep IV (Nebtawyre), he decided to move the king's capital to the north after establishing his rule. He named the new place where he built his palaces and government buildings “Itjtawy or It-Towy,” meaning “the ruler or controller of the lands,” referring to the north and south.

Amenemhat continued the policy of his predecessors in focusing on the south, extending Egypt's influence to Dongola. It is likely that the commercial center in the city of Kerma in northern Sudan was established during his reign after he built the fortress of Semna south of the Second Cataract.

Fortifications and the Prince’s Wall

He focused on Egypt's eastern and western borders. This energetic king put an end to Bedouin raids in both the eastern and western deserts and built a series of fortifications on the eastern border of the Delta, which were called the Prince's Wall. He also built another series of forts on the western borders of the delta, one of which still stands in the Natrn Valley, and inside which was a temple with a granite gate inscribed with his name.

Amenemhat was just a self-made man from the people whose intelligence and good understanding of things got him where he deserved to be, but he faced a lot of difficulties, and many reactionary forces rose up against him.

Legitimacy and Propaganda: The Prophecy of Neferti

One of his ways of responding to his opponents was to write the papyrus known as the Prophecy of Neferti.

It described the chaos that would befall Egypt and how it would be saved by a king who would come from the south, named Ameny, the son of a Nubian woman, born in Upper Egypt.

The Asians would be defeated at his altars, and the Libyans would fall before his flames. He would build the Prince's Wall, and after that, it would be impossible for the Asians to descend into Egypt. The name “Ameny” is simply a shortened form of the name Amenemhat, whose southern origins can be seen in his facial features and those of his family after him.

The purpose of writing this papyrus was only to promote this new ruler among the people and to try to convince them that his selection to save Egypt was the will of the gods since ancient times.

Ostrakon with part of the ancient Egyptian literary composition, Prophecy of Neferti. Limestone from Deir el-Medina, 19-20th Dynasty

Religious Contributions and Architectural Works

It was natural for Amenemhat to take an interest in Thebes, the city where he grew up and which helped him ascend to the throne. It was also natural for him to be interested in elevating the status of its local god Amun and building temples for him, but this did not prevent him from moving the capital of the country closer to Memphis and building his new headquarters in the area that is now close to the village of el-Lisht and building his eternal headquarters nearby.

This king's activities were not limited to Thebes and his new capital, but we see traces of his activities in many parts of Egypt, with the remains of his temples scattered throughout Sinai and the eastern Delta, as well as the remains of a temple in the city of Faiyum (Crocodilopolis), as he was the first of the kings of that dynasty to take a special interest in that region in order to reclaim its lands and make use of its lake.

Amenemhat’s Pyramid Complex and Burial Practices

His name appears on many tombs and tablets of officials who lived in his era, but most of what archaeologists have found was near his pyramid complex in el-Lisht, as Amenemhat returned to the ancient tradition that was prevalent in the Old Kingdom of building pyramids as tombs for kings and building a funerary temple to the east of it, Then he built a road leading to the valley and another temple at the beginning of that road.

Many engraved stones from his temples were found there, along with many remains of columns and statues. Some foundation deposits were also found under the floor of a corner of the pyramid and some corners of the temple.

These excavations also revealed an important fact, which is that the pyramid was built with stones, many of which were taken from older temples or tombs, including engraved stones brought from the temples of some kings of the Fourth Dynasty of Giza and the Fifth Dynasty of Saqqara. They also revealed the existence of many terraces inside and outside the pyramid walls for the king's senior officials and some members of his family.

Amenemhat actively exploited quarries and mines, facilitated trade, and succeeded in his policy with the regional princes, many of whom he pacified after he was assured of their loyalty to him. However, he allowed them to retain their wealth and most of their influence in their regions, provided they recognized his authority over them and paid the taxes imposed on them. His reign was a blessing for many of these rulers, who built great tombs in their countries, such as the princes of Beni Hasan.

South east corner of the north pyramid of Amenemhet I, Lisht, Egypt

Succession Strategy and Co-Regency with Senusret I

Amenemhat took the throne after he had passed the prime of his youth, having previously been a minister. Therefore, when he had completed twenty years of rule and was beginning to grow old, he wanted to ensure the fate of the king he had established and feared that greed or rivalry would manipulate him after his death. So he declared his son Senusret I his co-ruler, but the greater power remained in the hands of the king, who would occasionally send his son on military campaigns to familiarize himself with his country and consolidate Egypt's influence on its borders.

The infographic below provides a visual overview of the 12th Dynasty pharaohs and their chronological reigns.

Timeline of Egypt's 12th Dynasty Pharaohs

The table below details each pharaoh’s reign period and notable contributions during the 12th Dynasty.

Pharaoh	Reign (BCE)	Notable Achievements
Amenemhat I	1991–1962	Founder of the dynasty; moved the capital to Itjtawy
Senusret I	1971–1926	Built the White Chapel at Karnak
Amenemhat II	1929–1895	Focused on diplomacy and foreign trade
Senusret II	1897–1878	Developed the Faiyum irrigation system
Senusret III	1878–1839	Strong military ruler; expanded control into Nubia
Amenemhat III	1860–1814	Golden age of prosperity; built the Hawara pyramid
Amenemhat IV	1815–1806	Short reign; limited impact
Sobekneferu	1806–1802	First confirmed female pharaoh of Egypt

Assassination and the Story of Sinuhe

But the days passed for Amenemhat until his reign reached thirty years. He was not able to die peacefully in his old age, but died treacherously in his palace, as his enemies took advantage of the absence of his son, heir apparent, and co-ruler Senusret I, who was on a campaign in Libya, and plotted his murder.

Perhaps this assassination was due to rivalry for the throne among members of the same family, if the conspirators were able to reach him in his bedchamber.

We know some details about that ending from two papyri, one of which is the papyrus of a man named Sinuhe, who was related to the royal family and was with Senusret I on his campaign when a messenger arrived from the palace bearing news of the king's death. Senusret I ordered that the matter be kept secret from the army and immediately returned to the capital. Sinuhe was near the prince's tent and heard the news.

We do not know what frightened him so much that he fled in the dark and walked from one country to another until he managed to evade the guards on the eastern border and escape to Palestine and from there to Lebanon, where he settled, became wealthy, and became the leader of one of the tribes. Then, in his old age, he wanted to return to Egypt to spend the rest of his days there, King Senusret I granted him his wish.

The other papyrus that interests us is the one known as the Advice of Amenemhat to his son, which was undoubtedly written after the king's death, as if it were spoken by him from the other world,

advising his son on how to rule and be a king and explaining how they killed him. Amenemhat advises his son, who has become king, to be wary of his subjects and not to appear among them alone, and not to trust a brother or rely on a friend, reminding him of what he used to do when he gave to the needy, raised orphans, and enabled those who had nothing to achieve their goals.

But the one who ate my food was the one who incited the soldiers, and the one I fed with my own hands was the same one who was able to cause terror through them. Amenemhat continues to mention the ingratitude of those he showered with gifts, then says:

It was after eating, when evening fell, and I lay down on my bed for an hour of rest, because I was tired, when I heard the sound of weapons and saw and heard.

His guards clashed with the attackers, but disaster struck before the king could rise from his bed: if I had rushed forward with my weapon, I would have put the cowards to flight, but there is no courage in the night, no fighting for those who are alone, and no success without a protector. Thus, the conspiracy succeeded.

The text goes on to say that this happened when Senusret I was away, and the king was filled with grief over the betrayal of his servants and followers, whom he had nurtured and helped, and in whom he had placed his trust, only for them to conspire against his life.

Amenemhat then recounts what he did to subjugate the country to his authority, secure its borders, and make the people recognize his favors.

He also mentions his courage in hunting, his conquest of the Nubian region, and his punishment of the Asians who were raiding the Delta. He does not forget to mention his palace, which he built and decorated with gold and adorned its ceiling with lapis lazuli stones.

The doors of his chambers were made of copper. He concludes his will by greeting his son and wishing him success in completing what he started, advising him to do good deeds and build magnificent temples.

The 30th year of Amenemhat's reign corresponds to the 10th year of his son Senusret I's reign, if we count the ten years since he was declared crown prince and co-regent at the beginning of his actual reign. We have not yet come across any documents that provide details about the early days of Senusret I's reign, but we know that he did not encounter any difficulties that he could not overcome, and he was truly able to follow in the footsteps of his great father.

Successors of Amenemhat I

Senusret I continued his father's policy and established his foothold not only in Egypt but also in the countries on its borders and expanded southward. The word Kush began to appear frequently in texts as an area over which Egyptian influence extended. Senusret I took great care to exploit the mines of the desert, and we find his name on tablets erected by the heads of his expeditions to the desert, in which they mention the history of their work and glorify the king in whose name they worked.

We also know of Senusret I's interest in exploiting the alabaster quarries east of the Nile, about twenty-five kilometers from present-day Amarna.

Senusret I built monuments in many parts of Egypt, including Karnak, many parts of Nubia, the Delta, and Upper Egypt. Fayoum received special attention from him, and he built his pyramid near his father's pyramid in el-Lisht.

One of his most important projects was the reconstruction of the Temple of Ra in Heliopolis City. He began this project in the third year of his reign, and when he completed thirty years on the throne and celebrated his thirtieth anniversary, he erected two granite obelisks in front of the temple, one of which still stands there today.

He also built a small structure in Karnak that was used during celebrations as a resting place for the boat of the god Amun-Ra. Its stones were found inside the third pylon built by King Amenhotep III.

The reign of Senusret I lasted 44 years, ten of which were with his father and less than three with his son, whom he shared the throne with. Amenemhat II was not like his father or grandfather in his military or architectural activities, as the internal situation was secure and peaceful thanks to the efforts of his predecessors, and Egypt's relations with other nations were friendly and cordial. He sent gifts to the princes of Syria and others and also received many gifts from them.

Statue of Senusret I - The White Chapel of Senusret I at Karnak -Obelisk of Senusret I in Heliopolis

Not long ago, a large quantity of gold and silver vessels, jewelry, and other non-Egyptian items were found under the floor of the El-Tod temple south of Luxor. Amenemhat II's activity was directed in particular toward the exploitation of metal and semi-precious stone mines and sending expeditions to the desert to secure them.

The same was true of his successor, Senusret II, who followed in his footsteps in both domestic and foreign policy, but surpassed him in one important area: he devoted a large part of his efforts to major irrigation projects in the Faiyum region. He built his pyramid in El-Lahun and, nearby, founded a village for the workers and officials who supervised the construction of the pyramid and its accompanying temples. This village remained inhabited until the Hyksos period, and many important papyrus documents and other items used by the people in their daily lives were found there.

Senusret II's reign lasted no more than nine years, including the period he shared with his father Amenemhat II. When he left the throne to his son Senusret III.

El Lahun, Pyramid of Senusret II

Political Reforms of Senusret III

Egypt welcomed a king who was destined to be one of the greatest to ever sit on the throne of the pharaohs. Senusret III's reign lasted more than 38 years, and he left behind a great legacy.

Egypt welcomed a king who was destined to be one of the greatest to sit on the throne of the pharaohs in all ages. Senusret III's reign lasted more than thirty-eight years, and he left behind many monuments throughout Egypt that bear witness to his activity.

He built many temples and erected monuments to himself in the most famous temples built by previous kings. However, his most important achievements focused on two things: first, his complete elimination of the influence of the provincial rulers, and the other was his military campaigns, both in Palestine and in the south of the valley, and his wars against the tribes that attacked him, and his construction of many military forts in that region, which made him a legendary hero for future generations.

His elimination of the influence of the provincial rulers was a successful policy that removed all traces of their influence and feudalism from the country. Many of the heads of these powerful families resented Mentuhotep II when he unified the country and subjugated them to his authority. Amenemhat I took advantage of their resentment and allowed them to retain much of their influence after establishing borders between the provinces. They remained masters of their own lands as long as they paid taxes, pledged allegiance, and sent their men to fight when the king requested it.

However, as time passed, the influence of these rulers grew and their wealth increased. It was necessary to put an end to this, and there was no one better suited than Senusret III to deliver this blow. He stripped them of their privileges and removed their traditional titles, which they had passed on to their sons. From his reign onwards, the rulers of the provinces became ordinary officials like everyone else.

Senusret III's interest in Faiyum did not diminish, but he did not build his pyramid there. Instead, he built it like some of his predecessors from this family in the Dahshur area. A large collection of jewelry belonging to the princesses of his household, who were buried near his pyramid, was found and is now on display in the jewelry hall of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.

In his later years, he shared power with his son Amenemhat III, who reigned longer than any of his predecessors or successors in this dynasty.

Amenemhat III reaped the fruits of his father's wars and reforms and enjoyed a period of prosperity and tranquility, during which he devoted himself to construction projects, building many structures throughout the country.

He focused on irrigation, and the Faiyum region benefited more than any other from his efforts. He completed the work begun by his grandfather Senusret II to reclaim a large part of the land of that oasis by building great bridges to delimit the natural lake within it.

He built aqueducts and, at the entrance to Faiyum, dug canals and built many temples on its shores, which were at a new level. Time has preserved many of their remains, especially in the southwestern part of the region. He built his pyramid in the town of Hawwara and, to the east of it, his famous temple, about which the Greeks and Romans wrote extensively. but only a few scattered stones remain of its ruins.

In the summer of 1956, the tomb of his daughter Neferuptah was discovered. Inside the burial chamber, three large silver vessels bearing her name and that of her father Amenemhat III were found, but nothing else of significance was found in that chamber. Her coffin was found intact, untouched by thieves, but her mummy was not found intact inside it, as her body had decomposed from seepage water. She had only a few pieces of jewelry with her, and it appears that she was buried hastily during that turbulent period in Egyptian history.

He was succeeded by his son Amenemhat IV, who did not possess the qualities of his great ancestors. We know little about him, except that his name appears on some of his officials' tablets, some of whom went to the quarries in Nubia to bring back amethyst. His name also appears on the walls of the temple of Medinet Madi in Faiyum.

The Turin Papyrus mentions that he ruled for nine years, three months, and twenty-seven days, and we do not know exactly where he was buried, although the most likely opinion is that he was buried in one of the two pyramids, the few remains of which still stand today, south of the pyramids of his ancestors in el-Lisht.

The Fall of the Dynasty and the Second Intermediate Period

The days of that glorious family came to a sad end. We saw weakness creep into its ranks after Amenemhat III, and it ended when the daughter of King Amenemhat III ascended the throne of Egypt. Her reign lasted no more than three years, four months, and twenty days, as stated in the Turin Papyrus. It is likely that this queen, whose name was Sobekneferu, built her pyramid near the pyramid of Amenemhat III in Hawara, as some traces of her name were found near that pyramid.

If we ask ourselves what happened and what brought about the end of that family's rule, and perhaps of the queen as well, we find ourselves unable to give a convincing answer due to the scarcity of documents. Perhaps the family's weakness stemmed from internal unrest and rivalries among members of the ruling family, as we have seen signs of this weakness since the days of Amenemhat IV.

However, when discussing the Second Period, we will see that there were other external factors, some due to revolts in the south and others in Asia.

There was no king on the throne of Egypt like Amenemhat or Senusret to stop the sweeping tide that ended the family. Not only did the Amenemhat family come to an end, but Egypt entered a dark period in its history, followed by foreign invasion.

It was a long period lasting no less than 208 years, known as the Second Intermediate Period, which began after the death of Queen Sobekneferu and did not end until Egypt had cleansed its land of that foreign invasion and began a new era in its history with the establishment of the Eighteenth Dynasty.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)

Q1: When did Egypt’s 12th Dynasty rule and why is it significant?
A1: The 12th Dynasty ruled from around 1991 to 1802 BCE and is considered the peak of the Middle Kingdom. It was known for political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural achievements.

Q2: Who was Senusret III and what were his military accomplishments?
A2: Senusret III was one of the most powerful pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty. He led military campaigns into Nubia and built a series of forts to secure Egypt’s southern borders.

Q3: What was the importance of the Faiyum region during the 12th Dynasty?
A3: The Faiyum region was transformed into fertile farmland through large-scale irrigation projects initiated by pharaohs like Senusret II and Amenemhat III.

Q4: Who was Sobekneferu and why is she notable?
A4: Sobekneferu was the first confirmed female pharaoh in ancient Egypt. She ruled at the end of the 12th Dynasty and helped stabilize the country during a period of transition.

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