Who Were the Hyksos?
According to the ancient Egyptian historian Manetho, during the reign of King Toutimaios, Egypt faced an unexpected disaster:
“For reasons unknown to me, a blast from God struck us. Without warning, invaders of mysterious origin swept in from the east. They marched forward, easily conquering our land and defeating our rulers without much resistance. They burned our cities, destroyed the temples of the gods, and treated the people with cruelty—killing some, and enslaving women and children. Finally, they appointed one of their own, named Salitis, as king. He ruled from Memphis, making it the center of his government, and fortified the eastern Delta, especially the city of Avaris. From there, he stationed troops and inspected his forces regularly, maintaining control over the whole country with about 240,000 soldiers. Manetho lists several Hyksos kings and later describes how they were expelled from the land.”
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| city of Avaris, Hyksos fortress |
Clues from Ancient Egyptian Records
While Manetho provides an important narrative, other ancient Egyptian inscriptions add valuable details. Queen Hatshepsut, in her rock-cut temple at Beni Hassan, refers to the Hyksos, saying:
“I restored what had fallen into ruin, and rebuilt what had been destroyed at the time when the Asiatics ruled in Avaris in the north, roaming about in their hordes and causing devastation. They ruled without acknowledging the authority of Ra. The will of Ra did not prevail until my glorious reign.”
Additional sources, such as the Carnarvon Tablet, the Karnak Stela, and the Sallier Papyrus, offer little about their exact origins beyond describing them simply as “Asiatics.”
Origins: Where Did the Hyksos Come From?
Scholars agree that the Hyksos were peoples from the east—most likely from Asia. However, they were not of one single ethnicity. While many bore Semitic names, archaeological evidence also reveals Hurrian and Kassite influences, both Indo-European groups originating from Central Asia.
The word “Hyksos” itself is Egyptian, a later rendering of the title heqa-khasut meaning “ruler of foreign lands.” Egyptians had long used this title for tribal chiefs living to the east and north of Egypt. In the eyes of the Egyptians, there was little difference between these “Hyksos” and the nomadic desert tribes of the eastern frontier or Sinai, or even the Arab tribes of central Syria. It is possible the Hyksos entered Egypt through Palestine, perhaps already established there before migrating into the Nile Delta.
Cultural Background and Settlement
These mixed peoples likely lived in the Levant before moving into Egypt, bringing with them their own customs and cultural traits. Some scholars once argued that they came with horses and war chariots and had built a vast empire across Asia. However, more recent research disputes this, finding no conclusive evidence of a Hyksos “empire.” The introduction of the horse and chariot into Egypt may have occurred only after they had settled in the Delta.
The Hyksos Rule in Egypt
Our understanding of the Hyksos period comes from two main sources:
- Ancient Egyptian inscriptions, including Manetho’s accounts and temple reliefs.
- Archaeological excavations in Egypt and Palestine.
Egyptian sources portray the Hyksos as destructive invaders who desecrated temples and oppressed the people. However, historians caution that such accounts were written from the perspective of Egyptian national pride and propaganda—especially by rulers like Hatshepsut, who boasted about restoring temples damaged during the “war of liberation.”
Hatshepsut even claimed:
“They did not know the god, nor did they know how to serve him.”
Yet, evidence contradicts this view. Several Hyksos kings incorporated the name of the sun god Ra into their own royal titles—names such as Khyan, Apepi (Apophis), Neb-khepesh-Ra, and Aaqen-Ra—and some even adopted traditional pharaonic titulary. This suggests they integrated into certain aspects of Egyptian religious and political tradition.
Treatment of the Egyptian Population
Reports of Hyksos cruelty toward Egyptians may have some basis, but they should be understood in the context of conqueror–conquered relationships throughout history. It is natural for the defeated to view their rulers as harsh, and Egyptian accounts may reflect resentment rather than an objective record.
Interestingly, archaeological evidence shows that during Hyksos rule, Egyptian art, architecture, and daily life continued largely unchanged. Any new artistic styles or pottery forms were likely the result of increased contact with Western Asia, rather than deliberate cultural suppression.
Hyksos Religion and Deities
The primary deity of the Hyksos was Sutekh (or Setekh), identified with the Egyptian god Seth, who had been worshipped in the eastern Delta since the Old Kingdom. The Hyksos probably associated Seth with the Asiatic storm god Baal, elevating him to the highest position in their pantheon. This religious shift may have offended Egyptians who favored other gods.
The Hyksos also appeared to revere the donkey, possibly as a symbol of Sutekh or another deity. In some inscriptions, Sutekh is referred to as Reshep or Teshub, both linked to Asiatic warrior gods.
One of the most famous surviving records of the Hyksos period is the Kamose Stela, found in the temple at Karnak. This inscription describes King Apophis of the Hyksos sending envoys to the Nubians in an attempt to form an alliance against Egypt—an act that spurred the Theban ruler Kamose to military action around 1580 BCE.
Hyksos Kings
If we compile the names of the Hyksos rulers—from Manetho’s list, Africanus’ summaries, and inscriptions found on artifacts—we end up with a long catalogue, especially when including names recorded on scarabs.
Manetho’s chronology divides the Hyksos rulers into three dynasties:
- The Fifteenth Dynasty: Six kings, beginning with Salitis.
- The Sixteenth Dynasty: Thirty-two kings (in Africanus’ summary).
- The Seventeenth Dynasty: Thirteen rulers who were contemporaries of the Theban kings.
Egyptologists such as James Henry Breasted and Alan Gardiner have studied these rulers and their monuments in detail. Among them were three kings whose names ended with the Egyptian word “Apepi”—their artifacts have been found across Egypt, from Tanis to Ashdod.
One notable find is a bronze dagger from Saqqara and another from gold bearing the name of King Khyan—its hilt shaped like a lion’s head—and a gold ring inscribed with the name of ‘Abdi.
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| Hyksos dagger handle |
| Approx. Date (BCE) | King | Key Events |
|---|---|---|
| 1650 | Salitis | Founded the Hyksos capital at Avaris in the eastern Nile Delta. |
| 1620 | Khyan | Expanded Hyksos influence; evidence of trade with the Levant and possibly Crete. |
| 1580 | Apophis (Apepi) | Sought alliance with Nubia against Thebes; faced campaigns by Kamose. |
| 1550 | Defeat and Expulsion | Ahmose I captured Avaris and Sharuhen, ending Hyksos rule in Egypt. |
King Khyan and His Influence
Khyan, possibly corresponding to “Jannas” in Manetho’s list, was among the most powerful Hyksos rulers. His titles included Heqa-Khasut (“Ruler of Foreign Lands”), Commander of the Army, Son of Ra, and Beloved of the Good God—titles echoing those of native Egyptian pharaohs.
Artifacts bearing Khyan’s name have been found not only in Egypt but also in Palestine, Syria, and possibly Mesopotamia. Some scarabs have even turned up in Crete and Iraq. However, scholars caution against assuming these finds prove a vast Hyksos empire—these were portable luxury items, likely spread through trade rather than conquest.
The Seat of Hyksos Power
The Hyksos ruled mainly from Avaris in the eastern Delta, but their influence extended south into the Nile Valley. The extent of their administrative control over native Egyptian governors is unclear. It is likely that they allowed local officials to remain in place, provided they pledged loyalty and paid tribute.
Some native rulers in Thebes chose to submit peacefully to Hyksos authority, seeking stability rather than open conflict. However, over time, Theban princes began consolidating their power and asserting more independence.
Thebes and the Seeds of Revolt
The rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty in Thebes began using full pharaonic titles, styling themselves as “Kings of Upper and Lower Egypt,” even though the Delta remained under Hyksos control. Relations between Thebes and Avaris eventually soured, setting the stage for open conflict.
A later Ramesside-era text, written about 200 years after the Hyksos expulsion, recounts an incident in which King Apophis of the Hyksos sent a bizarre complaint to the Theban ruler Seqenenre Tao—claiming that the hippopotami in Thebes were disturbing his sleep in Avaris, over 600 kilometers away. This story, likely fictionalized, symbolized the growing tension between the two powers.
The First Clashes
The conflict turned deadly when Seqenenre Tao led a campaign against the Hyksos. His mummy, discovered in the 19th century, bears horrific head wounds—evidence that he died in battle. His death may have been a rallying cry for the Thebans to continue the fight.
The mantle passed to Kamose, who launched bold attacks into Hyksos-held territory. The Kamose Stelae—one of which was found at Karnak in 1932—records his determination to “drive the Asiatics from Egypt.” Kamose captured several towns and seized 300 ships laden with gold, silver, lapis lazuli, fine woods, and luxury goods.
Hyksos Diplomacy and the Nubian Alliance
One of the most striking events recorded on the Kamose Stela is the interception of a letter from Apophis to the king of Kush (Nubia), urging him to attack Thebes from the south while the Hyksos struck from the north. Kamose used this intercepted message to rally his troops, portraying the Hyksos as treacherous plotters.
The Final Campaigns: Ahmose and the Fall of Avaris
Kamose’s sudden death left the struggle unfinished, but his successor—Ahmose I—took up the cause. Ahmose continued the campaign northward, laying siege to Avaris. After its fall, the Hyksos retreated to Sharuhen in southern Canaan. The Egyptians pursued them and besieged the city for three years before capturing it, effectively ending Hyksos rule in Egypt around 1550 BCE.
The Fate of the Hyksos
Following their expulsion, the Hyksos disappear from history as a political or military power. Their descendants may have assimilated into Levantine populations or been absorbed by other regional cultures.
Ahmose I’s victory marked the beginning of the Eighteenth Dynasty and the New Kingdom, an era when Egypt became a dominant imperial power in the Near East.
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| Rise and Fall of the Hyksos – Timeline & Legacy |
Legacy and Historical Significance
The Hyksos period, though often vilified in Egyptian records, brought lasting changes. They introduced new military technologies—the horse, chariot, composite bow, and advanced fortifications—that Egypt later perfected. The political shock of their rule reinforced Egyptian determination to secure its borders and project power beyond them.
Ahmose I and his successors transformed Egypt into an expansionist empire, campaigning deep into Nubia and the Levant. The memory of the Hyksos served as a warning to future generations about the dangers of foreign domination.
Conclusion
The story of the Hyksos is one of migration, adaptation, and eventual conflict. Far from being a simple tale of invasion and conquest, it reflects the complex interplay of cultures in the ancient Near East. Their century of rule left deep marks on Egypt’s military, politics, and identity—marks that shaped the rise of one of history’s greatest empires.
Frequently Asked Questions About the Hyksos
1. Who were the Hyksos in ancient Egypt?
The Hyksos were a group of rulers of foreign origin—mainly from the Levant—who established Egypt’s Fifteenth Dynasty (c. 1650–1550 BCE). They ruled from their capital, Avaris, in the eastern Nile Delta during the Second Intermediate Period. Their name comes from the Egyptian term heqa-khasut, meaning “rulers of foreign lands.”
2. How did the Hyksos come to power in Egypt?
They gradually gained influence through migration and settlement in the Nile Delta, blending into local communities over generations. As central Egyptian authority weakened, they took control, first as local governors, then as kings.
3. What innovations did the Hyksos introduce to Egypt?
They brought significant military and technological advances, including the horse-drawn chariot, composite bow, improved bronze weapons, and new fortification styles. They also expanded Egypt’s trade links with the Levant and eastern Mediterranean.
4. Why were the Hyksos expelled from Egypt?
The Theban rulers of the Seventeenth Dynasty launched a series of campaigns—led by Seqenenre Tao, Kamose, and finally Ahmose I—to reunify Egypt. Ahmose I captured Avaris and pursued the Hyksos to Sharuhen in Canaan, ending their rule.
5. What impact did the Hyksos have on Egyptian history?
Their rule transformed Egypt’s military strategies and underscored the importance of border defense. The New Kingdom’s expansionist policies were partly a response to the Hyksos occupation, ensuring Egypt would not be vulnerable to similar foreign domination again.
6. Where was the Hyksos capital, Avaris, located?
Avaris was in the eastern Nile Delta, at modern Tell el-Dab’a. It became one of the largest cities in the ancient world during Hyksos rule, combining Egyptian and West Asian cultural influences.
7. Were the Hyksos invaders or immigrants?
Modern archaeology suggests they were not a sudden invading army, but rather long-term settlers who rose to power from within Egypt, taking advantage of political instability.
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References
- Bietak, Manfred. Avaris, the Capital of the Hyksos: Recent Excavations at Tell el-Dab'a. London: British Museum Press, 1996.
- Redford, Donald B. Egypt, Canaan, and Israel in Ancient Times. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
- Ryholt, Kim S.B. The Political Situation in Egypt during the Second Intermediate Period c. 1800–1550 BC. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1997.
- Shaw, Ian, ed. The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
- Gardiner, Alan H. Egypt of the Pharaohs: An Introduction. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961.
- Trigger, Bruce G., Barry J. Kemp, David O’Connor, and Alan B. Lloyd. Ancient Egypt: A Social History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
- van Seters, John. The Hyksos: A New Investigation. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1966.
- Grimal, Nicolas. A History of Ancient Egypt. Oxford: Blackwell, 1992.
