El and His Chosen People: The People of the Lord
In Canaanite belief, divinity was primarily about worshipping the fertile forces of nature. Despite the fact that the Canaanites and later the Phoenicians and Punic's worshipped various gods, the god El was the most revered among them. The Canaanite people deeply believed in their gods but held a particular reverence for El, who was seen as the supreme god, the creator of the heavens, earth, and all people. He was often referred to as "El, the god of the chosen people," meaning the Canaanites, also known as the "People of El" or the "People of the Lord." The title "Lord" was one of El's epithets, indicating a move towards monotheism.The older Canaanite deities were eventually removed from the Canaanite pantheon, and their myths were altered. This was likely due to religious reasons, possibly to establish El as the supreme and oldest god, known as "Father of the Gods and Men." This transformation might have been influenced by the actions of priests who favored El or other deities. Despite this, the richness and abundance of the Canaanite pantheon remained evident.
The Canaanite gods hinted at monotheism with El, henotheism (elevating one national god over others) with Baal, and polytheism through the diverse divine powers in the Canaanite divine family tree. El's worship leaned towards celestial ideals, while Baal's worship was earthlier, associated with violence, power, and sensuality. These two trends were at odds, making it difficult for El's celestial nature to coexist with Baal-Astarte's older and more entrenched traditions.
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| Canaanite deities |
Evolution of Canaanite Theology
The Canaanite theology underwent significant transformations from its inception to the early centuries AD. Initially, it was closely linked with Aramaic and Amorite theologies. The first major transformation occurred with the dominance of El's worship, which lasted until the mid-second millennium BC. Subsequently, Baal's theology emerged and spread in Ugarit and Ras Shamra, eventually dominating Phoenician cities. This period saw a deep transformation in Canaanite religion, with Baal's worship becoming prevalent, and Anat being replaced by Astarte due to the dominance of Adonic theology. Astarte, together with Baal, represented the ever-changing, fertile nature.
Foreign and invading religions significantly influenced the Canaanite religion. New religious ideas, rituals, and gods from Hurrian, Hittite, Assyrian, Babylonian, Egyptian, and even Aegean origins mingled with Canaanite beliefs. This mix continued with the arrival of Persian, Greek, and Roman beliefs, leading to the blending of Canaanite religion with surrounding faiths.
Western Canaanite Religion
In the west, the Phoenician theology evolved into Carthaginian theology, which incorporated local North African, particularly Berber, deities. Egyptian elements also appeared in Carthaginian theology, such as Isis, Osiris, Hathor, and the widely used magical amulets of the god Bes. This adaptation resulted in a split within Carthaginian theology: one part remained conservative, sticking to the worship of Melqart, Eshmun, and Astarte, while the other part was more open to local Berber and Egyptian deities.
This transformation is similar to what happened a century or two later when Carthaginians encountered Greek and Roman gods. The worship of "Adonis and Astarte" became the most widespread of the Greek influences, despite its Canaanite origins, due to its fertility nature.
Non-deity worship practices also emerged in Canaan, such as earth worship, ancestor worship, and the worship of the dead. According to Medico, many of these practices entered Canaan from non-Semitic origins and from the Philistines during the reign of King Nakmad. King Nakmad practiced ancestor worship, which involved setting up memorials for deceased kings in forests. The Philistines also practiced this worship and searched for gods within the earth to worship.
The Doctrine of Sacrifice
There is no doubt that the Canaanites were familiar with various types of sacrifices: plant, animal, and human. They offered bread and flour offerings to statues of gods in forests, slaughtered animals, and poured wine on graves for the dead to consume in the afterlife. It is believed that the blood of sacrifices was spilled in graves. The theological basis for human sacrifice lay in the belief that the sacrificed person would live on after death and even enjoy a happy afterlife, as they would be close to the gods. The method of sacrifice depended on the deity it was offered to. For example, offerings to the god Melqart were burnt, as were those to the god Baal Hamon in the western Punic regions.
In Ugarit, animal sacrifices were made in multiples of seven. Apart from bulls and sheep, stags, ibexes, and gazelles were also sacrificed.
The Relationship Between Gods and Humans
The relationship between gods and humans was intertwined. The king was sometimes referred to as the "Son of El" or "Son of Dagon." The word "El" was sacred and was considered final judgment. If El spoke bad news, it could only be erased by a purifying ritual. Human body parts were believed to be vulnerable to destruction, and the internal organs, especially the intestines, were seen as the center of emotional life. Prayers were thought to shield the intestines from disease.
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| One of two temples on the acropolis for Baal and Dagon, 40m apart, with similar plans. Baal was the city's patron deity; Dagon was a fertility god. Photo by Dosseman, 18 Sept 2008. |
Idolatry
Although the Canaanites created statues and engravings of their gods, they generally avoided idol worship. There were two types of idols: psl, Phoenician idols worshipped in forests, a practice learned from the Philistines during the reign of the "great king" (possibly Abimelech), and ell, small silver statues representing Canaanite gods. The term ell was used in the Hebrew Bible to refer to these household gods or personal idols.
Curses and Omens
Curses were believed to have harmful effects on humans. The opposing force to a curse was "healing and the power of life" or "resurrection." The Canaanites believed in both good and bad omens. The birth of children was considered a good omen, and they were cautious about offering them as sacrifices to the gods except in exceptional circumstances, particularly in the western Punic regions.
The number seven was sacred to the Canaanites, who offered seven sacrifices and believed in seven years of prosperity and seven years of hardship.
Beliefs About the Afterlife
The Canaanites believed in an afterlife, but their concept was simple. They believed the body decayed in the grave, but the soul turned into a "shadow" resembling the body. This world of shadows was populated by the souls of the dead. Detailed knowledge of the afterlife or the underworld is lacking, but it seems that the soul's understanding of death was confined to the dead, settling at the bottom of the sea and moving through darkness and the depths of the abyss.
Ancient tombs found in Ugarit were built under royal palaces and closely resembled the Tholos tombs found in Crete. These Canaanite tombs likely influenced the later Cretan tombs. Carthaginian tombs retained their Phoenician traditions, with chambers sometimes dug into the rock, descending up to twenty meters underground, leading to two or three chambers where bodies were placed on a bench or in a sarcophagus after being wrapped in a shroud or laid in a painted coffin. The Carthaginians also used pyramid-shaped tombs influenced by the Egyptians, filled with essentials for the deceased, as well as statues of gods and masks to ward off evil.
The soul, called "Barat" by the Canaanites, was believed to be separated from the body, although texts suggest it was the vessel containing the body, not the other way around. The soul needed to rest quietly with the body; otherwise, disturbing it could anger the gods. Therefore, the soul had to go and rest in the ground, transforming into a "shadow" in the underworld. The Ugaritians believed that the soul's shape resembled a palm tree.